Photography is the art, science, and practice of creating pictures by recording radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium, such as a photographic film, or electronic image sensors. Photography uses foremost radiation in the UV, visible and near-IR spectrum. For common purposes the term light is used instead of radiation. Light reflected or emitted from objects form a real image on a light sensitive area (film or plate) or a FPA pixel array sensor by means of a pin hole or lens in a camera during a timed exposure. The result on film or plate is a latent image, which is developed into a visual image (negative or diapositive). An image on a paper base is known as a print. The result on an FPA pixel array sensor is an electrical charge at each pixel which is electronically processed and stored in a computer (raster)-image file for subsequent display or processing. Photography has many uses for business, science, manufacturing (f.i. Photolithography), art, and recreational purposes.

As far as can be ascertained, it was Sir John Herschel in a lecture before the Royal Society of London, on March 14, 1839 who made the word "photography" known to the world. But in an article published on February 25 of the same year in a German newspaper called the ''Vossische Zeitung'', Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, had used the word photography already. The word photography is based on the Greek ''φῶς'' (''photos'') "light" and ''γραφή'' (''graphé'') "representation by means of lines" or "drawing", together meaning "drawing with light".

Function

The camera is the image-forming device, and photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the sensing medium. The respective recording medium can be the film itself, or a digital electronic or magnetic memory.

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the light recording material (such as film) to the required amount of light to form a "latent image" (on film) or "raw file" (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras use an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such as charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on paper or film.

The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used. A general principle known from the birth of photography is that the smaller the camera, the brighter the image. This meant that as soon as photographic materials became sensitive enough (''fast'' enough) to take candid or what were called genre pictures, small detective cameras were used, some of them disguised as a tie pin that was really a lens, as a piece of luggage or even a pocket watch (the ''Ticka'' camera).

The discovery of the 'camera obscura' that provides an image of a scene is very old, dating back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscuras that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the invention of photography was really concerned with finding a means to fix and retain the image in the camera obscura. This in fact occurred first using the reproduction of images without a camera when Josiah Wedgewood, from the famous family of potters, obtained copies of paintings on leather using silver salts. As he had no way of fixing them, that is to say to stabilize the image by washing out the non exposed silver salts, they turned completely black in the light and had to be kept in a dark room for viewing.

Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art.

The movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion.

In all but certain specialized cameras, the process of obtaining a usable exposure must involve the use, manually or automatically, of a few controls to ensure the photograph is clear, sharp and well illuminated. The controls usually include but are not limited to the following:

!Control	!Description
	The adjustment to place the sharpest focus where it is desired on the subject.
Aperture
Shutter speed	Adjustment of the speed (often expressed either as fractions of seconds or as an angle, with mechanical shutters) of the shutter to control the amount of time during which the imaging medium is exposed to light for each exposure. Shutter speed may be used to control the amount of light striking the image plane; 'faster' shutter speeds (that is, those of shorter duration) decrease both the amount of light and the amount of image blurring from motion of the subject and/or camera.
	On digital cameras, electronic compensation for the color temperature associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white balance to register natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ white balance to aesthetic end, for example white balancing to a blue object in order to obtain a warm color temperature.
ISO speed	Traditionally used to "tell the camera" the film speed of the selected film on film cameras, ISO speeds are employed on modern digital cameras as an indication of the system's ''gain'' from light to numerical output and to control the automatic exposure system. The higher the ISO number the greater the film sensitivity to light, whereas with a lower ISO number, the film is less sensitive to light. A correct combination of ISO speed, aperture, and shutter speed leads to an image that is neither too dark nor too light, hence it is 'correctly exposed,' indicated by a centered meter.
Autofocus point	On some cameras, the selection of a point in the imaging frame upon which the auto-focus system will attempt to focus. Many Single-lens reflex cameras (SLR) feature multiple auto-focus points in the viewfinder.

Many other elements of the imaging device itself may have a pronounced effect on the quality and/or aesthetic effect of a given photograph; among them are:

Focal length and type of lens (normal, long focus, wide angle, telephoto, macro, fisheye, or zoom)

Filters placed between the subject and the light recording material, either in front of or behind the lens

Inherent sensitivity of the medium to light intensity and color/wavelengths.

The nature of the light recording material, for example its resolution as measured in pixels or grains of silver halide.

Exposure and rendering

Camera controls are inter-related. The total amount of light reaching the film plane (the 'exposure') changes with the duration of exposure, aperture of the lens, and on the effective focal length of the lens (which in variable focal length lenses, can force a change in aperture as the lens is zoomed). Changing any of these controls can alter the exposure. Many cameras may be set to adjust most or all of these controls automatically. This automatic functionality is useful for occasional photographers in many situations.

The duration of an exposure is referred to as shutter speed, often even in cameras that do not have a physical shutter, and is typically measured in fractions of a second. It is quite possible to have exposures one of several seconds, usually for still-life subects, and for night scenes exposure times can be several hours.

The effective aperture is expressed by an f-number or f-stop (derived from focal ratio), which is proportional to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the aperture. Longer lenses will pass less light even though the diameter of the aperture is the same due to the greater distance the light has to travel: shorter lenses (a shorter focal length) will be brighter with the same size of aperture.

The smaller the f/number, the larger the effective aperture. The present system of f/numbers to give the effective aperture of a lens was standardized by an international convention. There were earlier, different series of numbers in older cameras.

If the f-number is decreased by a factor of $\backslash sqrt\; 2$, the aperture diameter is increased by the same factor, and its area is increased by a factor of 2. The f-stops that might be found on a typical lens include 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, where going up "one stop" (using lower f-stop numbers) doubles the amount of light reaching the film, and stopping down one stop halves the amount of light.

Image capture can be achieved through various combinations of shutter speed, aperture, and film or sensor speed. Different (but related) settings of aperture and shutter speed enable photographs to be taken under various conditions of film or sensor speed, lighting and motion of subjects and/or camera, and desired depth of field. A slower speed film will exhibit less "grain", and a slower speed setting on an electronic sensor will exhibit less "noise", while higher film and sensor speeds allow for a faster shutter speed, which reduces motion blur or allows the use of a smaller aperture to increase the depth of field. For example, a wider aperture is used for lower light and a lower aperture for more light. If a subject is in motion, then a high shutter speed may be needed. A tripod can also be helpful in that it enables a slower shutter speed to be used.

For example, f/8 at 8 ms (1/125th of a second) and f/5.6 at 4 ms (1/250th of a second) yield the same amount of light. The chosen combination has an impact on the final result. The aperture and focal length of the lens determine the depth of field, which refers to the range of distances from the lens that will be in focus. A longer lens or a wider aperture will result in "shallow" depth of field (i.e. only a small plane of the image will be in sharp focus). This is often useful for isolating subjects from backgrounds as in individual portraits or macro photography. Conversely, a shorter lens, or a smaller aperture, will result in more of the image being in focus. This is generally more desirable when photographing landscapes or groups of people. With very small apertures, such as pinholes, a wide range of distance can be brought into focus, but sharpness is severely degraded by diffraction with such small apertures. Generally, the highest degree of "sharpness" is achieved at an aperture near the middle of a lens's range (for example, f/8 for a lens with available apertures of f/2.8 to f/16). However, as lens technology improves, lenses are becoming capable of making increasingly sharp images at wider apertures.

Image capture is only part of the image forming process. Regardless of material, some process must be employed to render the latent image captured by the camera into a viewable image. With slide film, the developed film is just mounted for projection. Print film requires the developed film negative to be printed onto photographic paper or transparency. Digital images may be uploaded to an image server (e.g., a photo-sharing web site), viewed on a television, or transferred to a computer or digital photo frame. Prior to the rendering of a viewable image, modifications can be made using several controls. Many of these controls are similar to controls during image capture, while some are exclusive to the rendering process. Most printing controls have equivalent digital concepts, but some create different effects. For example, dodging and burning controls are different between digital and film processes. Other printing modifications include:

Chemicals and process used during film development

Duration of print exposure – equivalent to shutter speed

Printing aperture – equivalent to aperture, but has no effect on depth of field

Contrast – changing the visual properties of objects in an image to make them distinguishable from other objects and the background

Dodging – reduces exposure of certain print areas, resulting in lighter areas

Burning in – increases exposure of certain areas, resulting in darker areas

Paper texture – glossy, matte, etc.

Paper type – resin-coated (RC) or fiber-based (FB)

Paper size

Toners – used to add warm or cold tones to black-and-white prints

Uses

Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police, and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used by amateurs to preserve memories of favorite times, to capture special moments, to tell stories, to send messages, and as a source of entertainment.

History

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Di and Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. In the 6th century AD, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera, Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate, and Georges Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.

Invented in the first decades of the 19th century, photography (by way of the camera) seemed able to capture more detail and information than traditional mediums, such as painting and sculpting. Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed by a later attempt to duplicate it. Niépce was successful again in 1825. He made the first permanent photograph from nature with a camera obscura in 1826. However, because his photographs took so long to expose (8 hours), he sought to find a new process. Working in conjunction with Louis Daguerre, they experimented with silver compounds based on a Johann Heinrich Schultz discovery in 1816 that a silver and chalk mixture darkens when exposed to light. Niépce died in 1833, but Daguerre continued the work, eventually culminating with the development of the daguerreotype in 1837. Daguerre took the first ever photo of a person in 1838 when, while taking a daguerreotype of a Paris street, a pedestrian stopped for a shoe shine, long enough to be captured by the long exposure (several minutes). Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his formula, in exchange for his promise to announce his discovery to the world as the gift of France, which he did in 1839.

thumb|right|180px|A latticed window in Lacock Abbey, England, photographed by William Fox Talbot in 1835. Shown here in positive form, this is the oldest known extant photographic negative made in a camera. Meanwhile, Hercules Florence had already created a very similar process in 1832, naming it ''Photographie'', and English inventor William Fox Talbot had earlier discovered another means to fix a silver process image but had kept it secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention, Talbot refined his process so that portraits were made readily available to the masses. By 1840, Talbot had invented the calotype process, which creates negative images. Talbot's famous 1835 print of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey is the oldest known negative in existence. John Herschel made many contributions to the new methods. He invented the cyanotype process, now familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He discovered sodium thiosulphate solution to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery in 1839 that it could be used to "fix" pictures and make them permanent. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.

In March 1851, Frederick Scott Archer published his findings in "The Chemist" on the wet plate collodion process. This became the most widely used process between 1852 and the late 1860s when the dry plate was introduced. There are three subsets to the Collodion process; the Ambrotype (positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (positive image on metal) and the negative which was printed on Albumen or Salt paper.

Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made in through the 19th century. In 1884, George Eastman developed the technology of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today.

In 1908 Gabriel Lippmann won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference, also known as the Lippmann plate.

Processes

Black-and-white

All photography was originally monochrome, or ''black-and-white''. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process. The cyanotype process produces an image of blue and white for example. The albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, often because of the established archival permanence of well processed silver halide based materials.

Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome.

Color

Color photography was explored beginning in the mid-19th century. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light.

The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855. Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue filters. This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s. Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.

The development of color photography was held back by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability.

Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the Lumière brothers in 1907. Autochrome plates incorporated a mosaic color filter layer made of dyed grains of potato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s.

Kodachrome, the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multilayer emulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without special film processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by adding color couplers during a complex processing procedure. Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently available color films still employ a multilayer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product.

Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photoprinting equipment.

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared

Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction in full spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions.

Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm. Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red, and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters).

Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics & law enforcement, and even some claimed use in ghost hunting.

Digital photography

Traditional photography burdened photographers working at remote locations without easy access to processing facilities, and competition from television pressured photographers to deliver images to newspapers with greater speed. Photo journalists at remote locations often carried miniature photo labs and a means of transmitting images through telephone lines. In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film. The primary difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists photo manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.

Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not crop their pictures, or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "photomontages," passing them as "real" photographs. Today's technology has made photo editing relatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allows digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of forensic photography.

Digital point-and-shoot cameras have become widespread consumer products, outselling film cameras, and including new features such as video and audio recording. Kodak announced in January 2004 that it would no longer sell reloadable 35 mm cameras in western Europe, Canada and the United States after the end of that year. Kodak was at that time a minor player in the reloadable film cameras market. In January 2006, Nikon followed suit and announced that they will stop the production of all but two models of their film cameras: the low-end Nikon FM10, and the high-end Nikon F6. On May 25, 2006, Canon announced they will stop developing new film SLR cameras. Though most new camera designs are now digital, a new 6x6cm/6x7cm medium format film camera was introduced in 2008 in a cooperation between Fuji and Voigtländer.

According to a survey made by Kodak in 2007 when the majority of photography was already digital, 75 percent of professional photographers say they will continue to use film, even though some embrace digital.

According to the U.S. survey results, more than two-thirds (68 percent) of professional photographers prefer the results of film to those of digital for certain applications including:

film’s superiority in capturing more information on medium and large format films (48 percent);

creating a traditional photographic look (48 percent);

capturing shadow and highlighting details (45 percent);

the wide exposure latitude of film (42 percent); and

archival storage (38 percent)

Modes of production

===Amateur=== An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby and not for profit. The quality of some amateur work is comparable to that of many professionals and may be highly specialized or eclectic in its choice of subjects. Amateur photography is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial use or reward.

Commercial

Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are generally done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-house corporate design team.

Fashion and glamour photography usually incorporates models. Photographers here are paid more because of the demand for good photographers to shoot the item being sold and incorporate the models beauty in the image. Fashion photography like the work featured in Harper's Bazaar emphasizes clothes and other products; glamour emphasizes the model and body form. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and men's magazines which means these pictures are more revealing than editorial fashion photography. Models in glamour photography sometimes work nude.

Crime scene photography consists of photographing scenes of crime such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may be used to capture specific details.

Still life photography usually depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or man-made.

Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use. Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special skills.

Editorial photography illustrates a story or idea within the context of a magazine. These are usually assigned by the magazine.

* Photojournalism can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news story.

Portrait and wedding photography: photographs made and sold directly to the end user of the images.

Landscape photography depicts locations.

Wildlife photography demonstrates the life of animals.

Paparazzi

The market for photographic services demonstrates the aphorism "A picture is worth a thousand words", which has an interesting basis in the history of photography. Magazines and newspapers, companies putting up Web sites, advertising agencies and other groups pay for photography.

Many people take photographs for self-fulfillment or for commercial purposes. Organizations with a budget and a need for photography have several options: they can employ a photographer directly, organize a public competition, or obtain rights to stock photographs. Photo stock can be procured through traditional stock giants, such as Getty Images or Corbis; smaller microstock agencies, such as Fotolia; or web marketplaces, such as Cutcaster.

Art

During the 20th century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay ''Art'' states that only "significant form" can distinguish art from what is not art.

On February 14, 2006 Sotheby’s London sold the 2001 photograph "99 Cent II Diptychon" for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder making it the most expensive of all time.

Conceptual photography

: Photography that turns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

Science and forensics

The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording crime scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton bridge collapse in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known as forensic photography.

By 1853, Charles Brooke had invented a technology for the automatic registration of instruments by photography. These instruments included barometers, thermometers, psychrometers, and magnetometers, which recorded their readings by means of an automated photographic process.

Photography has become ubiquitous in recording events and data in science and engineering, and at crime scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were first used in the Victorian era and developed much further since that time.

Other image forming techniques

Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electrical charges rather than photographic film, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

Social and cultural implications

There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her writing "On Photography" (1977), Susan Sontag discusses concerns about the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community. Sontag argues, "To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one’s self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power." Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation.

Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its impact on society. In Alfred Hitchcock's ''Rear Window'' (1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'. Michal Powell's ''Peeping Tom'' (1960) portrays the camera as both sexual and sadistically violent technology that literally kills in this picture and at the same time captures images of the pain and anguish evident on the faces of the female victims.

"The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate - all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment."

Photography is one of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society. Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly, photos of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed." Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality.

One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze" in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a "reverse gaze" through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images.

Additionally, photography has been the topic of many songs in popular culture.

Law

Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the UK a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.

See also

; Forms

Aviation photography

Architectural photography

Candid photography

Cloudscape photography

Cosplay photography

Digiscoping

Documentary photography

Erotic photography

Fashion photography

Fine art photography

Fire photography

Food photography

Forensic photography

Glamour photography

Head shot

Landscape art

Landscape photography

Miksang (contemplative photography)

Nature photography

Social photography

Nude photography

Old-time photography

Photojournalism

Portrait photography

Sports photography

Still life photography

Stock photography

Street photography

Travel photography

Underwater photography

Vernacular photography

VR photography

War photography

Wedding photography

Wildlife photography

; Photographers and photographs

List of most expensive photographs

List of photographers

Movie stills photographer

; Equipment (cameras, etc.)

Camera

Camera Phone

Color chart

Digital camera

Digital single-lens reflex camera

Dry box

Film base

Film format

Film holder

Film scanner

Film stock

Filter

Flash

Gray card

Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras

List of photographic equipment makers

Monopod

Movie projector

Perspective control lens

Photographic film

Photographic lens

Reflector

Rangefinder camera

SD Card(for digital photography)

Single-lens reflex camera

Slide projector

Soft box

Still camera

Toy camera

Tripod

Twin-lens reflex camera

Video camera

View camera

Zone plate

; History

Albumen print

Calotype

Daguerreotype

Timeline of photography technology

; Techniques

Aerial Photography

Afocal photography

Astrophotography

Bokeh

Contre-jour

Cross processing

Cyanotype

Fill flash

Film developing

Full spectrum photography

Harris Shutter

High dynamic range imaging

High speed photography

Infrared photography

Kinetic photography

Kite aerial photography

Lead room

Light painting

Lith-Print

Macro photography

Micrography, or Photomicrography

Monochrome Photography

Motion blur

Night photography

Panning

Panoramic photography

Photogram

Photograph conservation

Photographic mosaic

Photographic print toning

Push printing

Push processing

Rephotography

Rollout photography

Sabatier Effect

Schlieren photography

Stereoscopy

Sun printing

Tilted plane focus

Time-lapse

Ultraviolet photography

Wide dynamic range

Zoom burst

; General concepts

Adobe Photoshop

Camera obscura

Composition in visual arts

Diana camera

Early photographers of York

Gelatin-silver process

Gum printing

Hand-coloring

Holography

Kirlian photography

Lomography

Mourning portraits

Negative

North American Nature Photography Association

Photograph

Print permanence

Vignetting

; Technical principles

Angle of view

Aperture

Color temperature

Depth of field

Depth of focus

Digital versus film photography

Double exposure

Exposure

F-number

Film format

Film speed

Perspective distortion

Photographic printing

Photographic processes

Pinhole camera

Reciprocity (photography)

Red-eye effect

Rule of thirds

Science of photography

Shutter speed

Zone System

References

Further reading

Introduction

''Photography. A Critical Introduction'' [Paperback], ed. by Liz Wells, 3rd edition, London [etc.]: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 041530704X

History

''A New History of Photography'', ed. by Michel Frizot, Köln : Könemann, 1998

Franz-Xaver Schlegel, ''Das Leben der toten Dinge - Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914-1935'', 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN 3-00-004407-8.

Reference works

Hans-Michael Koetzle: ''Das Lexikon der Fotografen: 1900 bis heute'', Munich: Knaur 2002, 512 p., ISBN 3-426-66479-8

John Hannavy (ed.): ''Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography'', 1736 p., New York: Routledge 2005 ISBN 978-0415972352

Lynne Warren (Hrsg.): ''Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography'', 1719 p., New York, NY [et.] : Routledge, 2006

''The Oxford Companion to the Photograph'', ed. by Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005

Other books

''Photography and The Art of Seeing'' by Freeman Patterson, Key Porter Books 1989, ISBN 1-55013-099-4.

''The Art of Photography:'' An Approach to Personal Expression by Bruce Barnbaum, Rocky Nook 2010, ISBN 1933952687.

''Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography'' by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8.

External links

World History of Photography From The History of Art.

Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Process From the State Library & Archives of Florida.

Shades of Light (Australian Photography 1839 - 1988) the online version of the original Shades of Light published 1998, Gael Newton, National Gallery of Australia.

Category:1822 introductions Category:Greek loanwords Category:Optics

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name	James Nachtwey
birth date	March 14, 1948
birth place	Syracuse, New York, USA
occupation	Photojournalist
gender
credits	See Awards, honors and films
url	http://www.jamesnachtwey.com/ }}

James Nachtwey (born March 14, 1948) is an American photojournalist and war photographer.

He grew up in Massachusetts and graduated from Dartmouth College, where he studied Art History and Political Science (1966-70).

He has been awarded the Overseas Press Club's Robert Capa Gold Medal five times. In 2003, he was injured by a grenade in an attack on his convoy while serving as a ''Time'' contributing correspondent in Baghdad, from which he has made a full recovery.

Photography

Nachtwey started working as a newspaper photographer in 1976 at the Albuquerque Journal. In 1980, he moved to New York and began working as a freelance photographer. In 1981, Nachtwey covered his first overseas assignment in Northern Ireland illustrating civil strife. He has documented a variety of armed conflicts and social issues, spending time in South Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, Russia, Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union shooting pictures of war, conflict and famine, and images of socio-political issues (pollution, crime and punishment) in Western Europe and the United States. He currently lives in New York City.

In 1994, Nachtwey was covering the upcoming elections in South Africa, the first non-racial ones in decades. As an associate of the Bang-Bang Club, he was at the scene when Ken Oosterbroek was killed and Greg Marinovich was seriously injured.

Nachtwey had been injured previously in his work, but it was during his extensive coverage of the United States invasion of Iraq that he received his first combat injury. As Nachtwey, along with ''Time'' correspondent Michael Weisskopf rode in the back of a Humvee with the United States Army "Tomb Raiders" Survey Platoon, an insurgent threw a grenade into the vehicle. Weisskopf grabbed the grenade to throw it out of the humvee, but it exploded in his hand. Two soldiers were injured in the explosion, along with the ''Time'' journalists. Nachtwey managed to take several photographs of medic Billie Grimes treating Weisskopf before passing out. Both journalists were airlifted to Germany and later to hospitals in the United States. Nachtwey recovered sufficiently to return overseas to cover the tsunami in Southeast Asia of December 26, 2004.

Nachtwey has worked with ''Time'' as a contract photographer since 1984. He worked for Black Star from 1980 until 1985 and was a member of Magnum Photos from 1986 until 2001. In 2001, he was a founding member of the VII Photo Agency (he disassociated from VII in August 2011)

Nachtwey was present during the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center, and produced a well known related body of work. He also compiled a photo essay on the effects of the Sudan conflict on civilians.

Awards, honors and films

Nachtwey photographs have been exhibited throughout Europe and the United States and he has received numerous prizes and awards including the World Press Photo award in 1994. Nachtwey has also been awarded the Overseas Press Club's Robert Capa Gold Medal in 1983, 1984, 1986, 1994 and 1998. In 2001, the documentary ''War Photographer'' was released, focusing on Nachtwey and his work. Directed by Christian Frei, the film received an Academy Award nomination for best documentary film.

Nachtwey received the prestigious Dan David Prize in 2002 for his haunting photos aimed to burden viewers with an uncomfortable awareness that will force them to seek justice and change.

In 2006, Nachtwey was awarded the 12th Annual Heinz Award in Arts and Humanities from the Heinz Family Foundation for his body of work, an honor that includes a monetary prize of US $250,000. Nachtwey is one of three winners of the 2007 TED Prize. Each recipient was granted $100,000 and one "world-changing wish" to be revealed at the 2007 TED conference, in Monterey, California. Many members of the TED Community, and a group of world-class companies, have pledged support to help fulfill the wishes. Nachtwey's wish, revealed March 8, 2007, is this: "There's a vital story that needs to be told, and I wish for TED to help me gain access to it and then to help me come up with innovative and exciting ways to use news photography in the digital era." Those who wish to help him will sign an NDA and help him "gain access to a place in the world where a critical situation is occurring and fully document it with photography; set a date to unveil the pictures and find a series of innovative ways to create powerful impact with them, using novel display technologies and the power of the Internet as well as media; and use the campaign to generate resources for organizations that are working to address and transform the situation." Early results of this work have been unveiled at XDRTB.org to document extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis throughout the world.

In 2008, Nachtwey exhibited a series of original photographs at Le Laboratoire in Paris, France. The exhibit entitled "Struggle For Life" documented the human toll of TB and AIDS presented the work of Nachtwey with text by Dr. Anne Goldfeld of work they began together in Cambodia in 2003 as well as photos from Thailand, Africa and Siberia. The work was accompanied by film portraits of Nachtwey and several leading medical scientists participating in the Attention! Symposium by American filmmaker Asa Mader.

References

External links

Official website

James Nachtwey TEDTalk: Use my photographs to stop the worldwide XDR-TB epidemic

VII photo agency

Film Portrait of James Nachtwey by Asa Mader

Time.com: Shattered 9/11/2001

''War Photographer'' Documentary

Close Up: Five Questions With James Nachtwey

PBS online NewsHour: Conversation with James Nachtwey

The Independent Oct 2002 - Review of Nachtwey Lecture at the Royal Geographical Society

Creating awareness of extremely drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB)

2003 Dan David Prize laureate

The Heinz Awards, James Nachtwey profile

Category:1948 births Category:Living people Category:American photographers Category:American photojournalists Category:Dartmouth College alumni Category:War photographers Category:War correspondents Category:People from New York City Category:People from Syracuse, New York Category:Photography in Cambodia Category:Photography in Iraq Category:Photography in Lebanon Category:American sailors

cs:James Nachtwey de:James Nachtwey es:James Nachtwey fr:James Nachtwey it:James Nachtwey nl:James Nachtwey ja:ジェームズ・ナクトウェイ pl:James Nachtwey pt:James Nachtwey ru:Нахтвей, Джеймс sk:James Nachtwey sv:James Nachtwey zh:詹姆斯·纳赫特韦

Aida Muluneh (born 1974) is an Ethiopian photographer and artist.

Muluneh received her BA in film, radio, and television from Howard University in 2001. She has worked freelance since then, also founding DESTA (Developing and Educating Societies Through the Arts). Her work has been exhibited at the National Museum of African Art in Washington, DC.

References

Biographical sketch, National Museum of African Art

Aida Muluneh often turns her attention to women of the African diaspora, emphasizing the links and disjunctures between generations, commemorating the sorrows and celebrating the victories in their lives. Her subjects convey graceful, yet strong, approaches to the vicissitudes of life within the African diaspora. In the nextcoming issue of the contemporary art magazine Crudelia? within the special about Contemporary African Art an entire page is devoted to this interesting artist, on cure of Marta Massaioli.

Category:1974 births Category:Living people Category:Ethiopian photographers Category:Howard University alumni Category:Ethiopian women Category:Women photographers

name	James Beard
birth place	Portland, Oregon, United States
death place	New York City, New York, United States
style	French, Chinese
website	http://www.jamesbeard.org/ }}

James Andrew Beard (May 5, 1903 – January 21, 1985) was an American chef and food writer. The central figure in the story of the establishment of a gourmet American food identity, Beard was an eccentric personality who brought French cooking to the American middle and upper classes in the 1950s. His legacy lives on in twenty books, numerous writings, his own foundation, and his foundation's annual Beard awards in various culinary genres.

Early life

Beard was born in Portland, Oregon, to Elizabeth and John Beard. His mother operated The Gladstone Hotel and his father worked at the city's customs house. The family vacationed on the Pacific coast in Gearhart, Oregon. There, Beard was exposed to the unique local foods of the Pacific Northwest, including seafood and wild berries.

Beard's earliest memory of food was the Lewis and Clark Exposition of 1905, when he was just two years old. Beard in his memoir recalled:

I was taken to the exposition two or three times. The thing that remained in my mind above all others — I think it marked my life — was watching Triscuits and shredded wheat biscuits being made. Isn't that crazy? At two years old that memory was made. It intrigued the hell out of me.

At the age of three, Beard was bedridden with malaria. This sickness gave him time to eat and enjoy the food prepared by his mother and their Chinese helper. Beard's early childhood and the influence that Chinese cooking had on him helped prepare him for a later life at the forefront of culinary American ''chic''. According to Beard, he was raised by Thema and Let who instilled a passion for Chinese culture. According to David Kamp, "in 1940 — he realized that part of his mission [as a food connoisseur] was to defend the pleasure of real cooking and fresh ingredients against the assault of the Jell-O-mold people and the domestic scientists." Beard lived in France in the 1920s. Consequently, Beard experienced French cuisine at bistros. As a result of Beard's exposure and subsequent influence of French culinary culture he became a Francophile.

Education

According to the James Beard Foundation, "After a brief stint at Reed College in Portland," (from which he was expelled in 1922 for homosexual activity) "in 1923 Beard went on the road with a theatrical troupe. He lived abroad for several years studying voice and theater, but returned to the United States for good in 1927."

Career

He trained initially as a singer and actor, and moved to New York City in 1937. Not having much luck in the theater, he and his friend, Bill Rhodes, capitalized on the cocktail party craze by opening a catering company, "Hors d'Oeuvre, Inc.", which led to the publication of Beard's first cookbook, ''Hors D'Oeuvre and Canapés'', a compilation of his catering recipes. Rationing difficulties during World War II brought his catering business to a halt. In 1946, he appeared on an early televised cooking show, ''I Love to Eat'', on NBC, and thus began his rise as an eminent American food authority.

According to Julia Child, Beard was on the culinary road map in 1940 with the publication of his first book, ''Hors d'Oeuvre and Canapés''. Beard started out with a catering business in New York, followed by lecturing, teaching, and writing both books and articles. Child states, "Through the years he gradually became not only the leading culinary figure in the country, but 'The Dean of American Cuisine'." According to the James Beard Foundation website: "In 1955, he established The James Beard Cooking School. He continued to teach cooking to men and women for the next 30 years, both at his own schools (in New York City and Seaside, Oregon), and around the country at women's clubs, other cooking schools, and civic groups. He was a tireless traveler, bringing his message of good food, honestly prepared with fresh, wholesome, American ingredients, to a country just becoming aware of its own culinary heritage."

James Beard brought French cooking to the American middle and upper classes in the 1950s. Beard starred on TV as a cooking personality. David Kamp notes that this show was the first cooking show on TV. Kamp contrasts Dione Lucas's cooking show and cooking school with that of James Beard, noting also that their prominence in the 1950s marked the emergence of a New York-based, nationally- and internationally-known sophisticated food culture. Kamp notes, "It was in this decade [the 1950s] that Beard made his name as ''James Beard'', the brand name, the face and belly of American gastronomy." Kamp points out that Beard was able to meet Alice B. Toklas on a trip to Paris, illustrating Beard's extensive network of fellow food celebrities that would follow him throughout his life and carry on his legacy after his death.

Financial needs caused Beard to sign endorsement deals promoting products that he might otherwise have not used or suggested in his own cuisine, had he been financially independent. Beard entered into an endorsement project with the Green Giant canned food company. Kamp explains that Beard felt that he was a "gastronomic whore" for doing so. Apparently, mass-produced food that was neither fresh, local, nor seasonal, was a betrayal of Beard's gastronomic beliefs, but arose from his desire to pay for his cooking schools.

In 1981, along with friend Gael Greene, Beard founded Citymeals-on-Wheels, which continues to help feed the home-bound elderly in New York City.

Personal life

Julia Child accurately sums up Beard's personal life in a brief description:

Beard was the quintessential American cook. Well-educated and well-traveled during his eighty-two years, he was familiar with many cuisines but he remained fundamentally American. He was a big man, over six feet tall, with a big belly, and huge hands. An endearing and always lively teacher, he loved people, loved his work, loved gossip, loved to eat, loved a good time.

Child's summary makes two significant omissions. The first is that he was homosexual. Beard's memoir states: "By the time I was seven, I knew that I was gay. I think it's time to talk about that now." The second was Beard's own admission of possessing "until I was about forty-five, I guess a really violent temper."

Mark Bittman (who did not know Beard personally) describes him in a manner similar to that of Julia Child: "In a time when serious cooking meant French Cooking, Beard was quintessentially American, a Westerner whose mother ran a boardinghouse, a man who grew up with hotcakes and salmon and meatloaf in his blood. A man who was born a hundred years ago on the other side of the country, in a city, Portland, that at the time was every bit as cosmopolitan as, say, Allegheny PA."

Beard died January 21, 1985, in New York City, New York, United States, of heart failure at the age of 81. He was cremated, and his ashes were scattered over the beach in Gearhart, Oregon, United States, where he spent his summers as a child.

Foundation

The James Beard Foundation was set up in Beard's honor to provide scholarships to aspiring food professionals and to champion the American culinary tradition — which Beard helped create. Since 2001 the Beard Foundation has awarded over $2.2 million in scholarships and tuition waivers to young culinarians and career changers pursuing culinary studies.

For a time, the foundation was plagued by scandal; in 2004 its head, Leonard Pickell, resigned and was imprisoned for grand larceny and in 2005 the board of trustees resigned. It was during this period that chef and writer Anthony Bourdain referred to the foundation as "a kind of benevolent shakedown operation". Since that time a completely new board of trustees has instituted a new ethics policy and selected a new president, Susan Ungaro, both actions explicitly targeted at preventing further abuse.

The foundation continues to experience some financial difficulty; it has operated at a deficit for several consecutive years, though the size of that deficit has decreased since Pickell's departure and 2010 is expected to be a turnaround year for the organization.

After Beard's death in 1985, Julia Child had the idea to preserve his home in New York City as the gathering place it was throughout his life. Peter Kump, a former student of Beard's and the founder of the Institute of Culinary Education (formerly Peter Kump's New York Cooking School), spearheaded the effort to purchase the house and create the James Beard Foundation.

Beard's renovated brownstone is located at 167 West 12th Street, in the heart of Greenwich Village. It is North America's only historical culinary center, a place where Foundation members, the press, and the general public are encouraged to savor the creations of both established and emerging chefs from across the country and around the globe.

The annual James Beard Foundation Awards are given at the industry's biggest party, part of a fortnight of activities that celebrate fine cuisine and Beard's birthday. Held on the first Monday in May, the Awards ceremony honors the finest chefs, restaurants, journalists, cookbook authors, restaurant designers, and electronic media professionals in the country. It culminates in a reception featuring a tasting of the signature dishes of more than 30 of the James Beard Foundation's very best chefs.

A quarterly magazine, ''Beard House'', is a comprehensive compendium of the best in culinary journalism. The foundation also publishes the ''James Beard Foundation Restaurant Directory'', a directory of all chefs who have either presented a meal at the Beard House or have participated in one of the foundation's out-of-House fundraising events.

Works

''Hors d'Oeuvre and Canapés'' 1940 (M. Barrows & Co.), revised in 1963 and 1985

''Cook It Outdoors'' 1941 (M. Barrows & Co.)

''Fowl and Game Cookery'' 1944 (M. Barrows & Co.)

''The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert'' 1949 (Simon and Schuster), reissued in 1982 as ''The Fireside Cookbook''

''Paris Cuisine'' 1952 (Little, Brown) Beard co-wrote Paris Cuisine with British journalist Alexander Watt.

''The Complete Book of Barbecue & Rotisserie Cooking'' 1954 (Maco Magazine Corp.), reissued in 1958 as ''New Barbecue Cookbook'' and again in 1966 as ''Jim Beard's Barbecue Cookbook''

''Complete Cookbook for Entertaining'' 1954 (Maco Magazine Corp.)

''How to Eat Better for Less Money'' 1954 (Simon and Schuster)

''James Beard's Fish Cookery'' 1954 (Little, Brown), reissued in 1976 and 1987 in paperback as ''James Beard's New Fish Cookery''

''Casserole Cookbook'' 1955 (Maco Magazine Corp.)

''The Complete Book of Outdoor Cookery'' 1955 (Doubleday)

''The James Beard Cookbook'' 1959 (Dell Publishing Co.), revised in 1961, 1970, 1987 (paperback) and 1996

''Treasury of Outdoor Cooking'' 1960 (Golden Press)

''Delights & Prejudices: A Memoir with Recipes'' 1964 (Atheneum), revised in 1981 and 1990

''James Beard's Menus for Entertaining'' 1965 (Delacorte Press)

''How to Eat (and Drink) Your Way through a French (or Italian) Menu'' 1971 (Atheneum)

''James Beard's American Cookery'' 1972 (Little, Brown)

''Beard on Bread'' 1973 (Knopf), revised in 1995 (paperback)

''James Beard Cooks with Corning'' 1973

''Beard on Food'' 1974 (Knopf)

''New Recipes for the Cuisinart Food Processor'' 1976

''James Beard's Theory & Practice of Good Cooking'' 1977 (Knopf), revised in 1978, 1986, and 1990

''The New James Beard'' 1981 (Knopf), revised in 1989

''Beard on Pasta'' 1983 (Knopf)

''The Grand Grand Marnier Cookbook''

''Benson & Hedges 100's Presents: 100 of the World's Greatest Recipes by James Beard'' 1976

''The James Beard Cookbook on CuisineVu'' 1987

''James Beard's Simple Foods'' 1993 (Macmillan)

''Love and Kisses and a Halo of Truffles'' 1994 (Arcade), edited by John Ferrone

''The James Beard Cookbooks'' 1997 (Thames and Hudson), edited by John Ferrone

''The Armchair James Beard'' 1999 (The Lyons Press), edited by John Ferrone

Archival collection

The James Beard Papers are housed in the Fales Library at New York University. See The Fales Library Guide to the James Beard Papers

Notes

References

Beard, James. ''A James Beard Memoir: The James Beard Celebration Cookbook''. Ed. Barbara Kafka. New York: Wings Books, 1990.

Beard, James. ''James Beard Beard on Food: The Best Recipes and Kitchen Wisdom from the Dean of American Cooking''. New York: Bloomsbury, 2007.

Beard, James. ''The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert''. New York: Simon And Schuster, 1949.

Beard, James. ''The Best of Beard: Great Recipes From a Great Cook''. New York: Western Publishing Company, Inc., 1974.

Clark, Robert. ''James Beard: A Biography''. New York: HarperCollins, 1993.

Kamp, David. ''The United States of Arugula: The Sun Dried, Cold-pressed, Dark-Roasted, Extra Virgin Story of the American Food Revolution''. New York: Broadway Books, 2006.

Loughery, John. ''The Other Side of Silence – Men's Lives and Gay Identities: A Twentieth-Century History''. New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1998. ISBN 0805038965.

External links

The Fales Library Guide to the James Beard Papers

James Beard Foundation

James Beard Foundation Awards

Notable Oregonians: James Beard — Food Expert/Writer from Oregon Blue Book

James Beard Audio Recordings

James Beard Quotes

Category:1903 births Category:1985 deaths Category:American chefs Category:American food writers Category:American television chefs Category:People from Portland, Oregon Category:Reed College alumni Category:LGBT writers from the United States Category:Gay writers

de:James Beard (Koch) es:James Beard no:James Beard pt:James Beard

name	Frances Moore Lappé
birth name	Frances Moore
birth date	10 February 1944
birth place	Pendleton, Oregon, USA
occupation	writer, activist
citizenship	USA
subject	social change, democracy, hunger
notableworks	''Diet for a Small Planet, Getting a Grip 2: Clarity,Creativity and Courage for the World We Really Want, Getting a Grip: Clarity, Creativity and Courage in a World Gone Mad, World Hunger Twelve Myths, Rediscovering America's Values, the Quickening of America, Hope's Edge, Democracy's Edge, You Have the Power, ''
memberships	World Future Council, International Commission on the Future of Food, Union of Concerned Scientists spouse
partner	Richard R. Rowe
children	Anthony and Anna
awards	Right Livelihood Award, Rachel Carson Award, Women's National Book Association, James Beard Humanitarian of the Year, Seventeen honorary doctorates
website	http://www.smallplanet.org

Frances Moore Lappé (born February 10, 1944) is the author of 18 books including the three-million copy ''Diet for a Small Planet''. She is the co-founder of three national organizations that explore the roots of hunger, poverty and environmental crises, as well as solutions now emerging worldwide through what she calls Living Democracy. Her most recent book is ''Getting a Grip 2: Clarity, Creativity and Courage for the World We Really Want''.

Biography

Lappé was born in 1944 in Pendleton, Oregon to John and Ina Moore and grew up in Fort Worth, Texas. After graduating from Earlham College in 1966, she married toxicologist and environmentalist Dr. Marc Lappé in 1967. They had two children, Anthony and Anna Lappé. They divorced in 1977. She briefly attended University of California at Berkeley for graduate studies in social work.

Throughout her works Lappé has argued that world hunger is caused not by the lack of food but rather by the inability of hungry people to gain access to the abundance of food that exists in the world and/or food-producing resources because they are simply too poor. She has posited that our current "thin democracy" creates a mal-distribution of power and resources that inevitably creates waste and an artificial scarcity of the essentials for sustainable living.

Lappé makes the argument that what she calls "living democracy," i.e. not only what we do in the voting booth but through our daily choices of what we buy and how we live, provides a mental and behavioral framework of goods and goodness that is aligned with our basic human nature. She believes that only by "living democracy" can we effectively solve today's social and environmental crises.

Lappé began her writing career early in life. She first gained prominence in the early 1970s with the publication of her book ''Diet for a Small Planet'', which has sold several million copies. In 1975, with Joseph Collins she launched the California-based Institute for Food and Development Policy (Food First) to educate Americans about the causes of world hunger. In 1990, Lappé co-founded the Center for Living Democracy, a 10-year initiative to accelerate the spread of democratic innovations in which regular citizens contribute to problem solving. She served as founding editor of the Center’s American News Service (1995–2000), which placed stories of citizen problem-solving in nearly half the nation’s largest newspapers.

Frances Moore Lappé’s works have been translated into 15 languages, the most recent of which is a Chinese publication of ''Hope’s Edge''.

In 2002, Lappé and her daughter Anna established the Small Planet Institute based in Cambridge, Massachusetts a collaborative network for research and popular education to bring democracy to life. With her daughter, she is also co-founder of the Small Planet Fund, channeling resources to democratic social movements worldwide.

Small Planet Institute’s website, www.smallplanet.org, was revamped in November 2010. It features information on Frances and Anna, including book descriptions and news articles; resources on food, hunger and the environment; and resources on power and democratic life.

''Democracy's Edge: Choosing to Save our Country by Bringing Democracy to Life'', was released in 2006. This book completed a trilogy which began in 2002 with the 30th anniversary sequel to ''Diet for a Small Planet'', titled ''Hope's Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet'', co-written with her daughter, Anna Lappé. Then in 2004 she published with Jeffrey Perkins ''You Have the Power: Choosing Courage in a Culture of Fear.'' Among Lappé's other books are ''World Hunger: Twelve Myths'' and ''Rediscovering America's Values.''

In March 2010, the Institute's publishing arm, Small Planet Media, released Lappé's newest book, ''Getting a Grip 2: Clarity, Creativity, & Courage for the World We Really Want'', a through revision of the 2008 Nautilus Gold/"Best in Small Press" award winning edition.

Her upcoming book, ''EcoMind: Seven Thought-Leaps for the Planet'', will be released in Fall 2011.

In 2006 she was chosen as a founding councilor of the Hamburg-based World Future Council. She is also a member of the International Commission on the Future of Food and Agriculture and the National Advisory Board of the Union of Concerned Scientists. She serves as an advisor to the Calgary Centre for Global Community and on the board of David Korten’s People-Centered Development Forum. In 2009 she joined the advisory board of Corporate Accountability International's Value the Meal campaign. She is a Contributing Editor to ''YES! Magazine''. Lappé's articles and opinion pieces have appeared in publications as diverse as ''The New York Times'', ''O Magazine'', and ''Christian Century''. Her television and radio appearances have included a PBS special with Bill Moyers, the Today Show, CBS Radio, and National Public Radio.

Lappé has received 17 honorary doctorates from distinguished institutions, including the University of Michigan, Kenyon College, Allegheny College Lewis and Clark College and Grinnell College. She also held various teaching and scholarly positions: -From 1984-1985, Lappé was a visiting scholar at the Institute for the Study of Social Change, at the University of California, Berkeley. - From 2000-2001, Lappé was a visiting scholar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. - In 2003, Lappé taught with Dr. Vandana Shiva in Dehra Dun, India, about the roots of world hunger, sponsored by the Navdanya researching and agricultural demonstration center. - In 2004, Lappé taught a course on Living Democracy at Schumacher College in England. - In 2006 and 2008, Lappé was a visiting professor at Suffolk University, Boston.

In 1987 in Sweden, Lappé became the fourth American to receive the Right Livelihood Award, often called the Alternative Nobel. In 2003, she received the Rachel Carson Award from the National Nutritional Foods Association. She was selected as one of twelve living "women whose words have changed the world" by the Women's National Book Association.

thumb|Lappé receiving the 2008 James Beard Foundation Humanitarian of the Year AwardIn 2008, she was honored by the James Beard Foundation as the Humanitarian of the Year.In the same year, Gourmet Magazine named Lappé among 25 people (including Thomas Jefferson, Upton Sinclair, and Julia Child), whose work has changed the way America eats. Diet for a Small Planet was selected as one of 75 Books by Women Whose Words Have Changed the World by members of the Women’s National Book Association in observance of its 75th anniversary.

Historian Howard Zinn wrote: “A small number of people in every generation are forerunners, in thought, action, spirit, who swerve past the barriers of greed and power to hold a torch high for the rest of us. Lappé is one of those.” The Washington Post says: “Some of the twentieth century’s most vibrant activist thinkers have been American women – Margaret Mead, Jeanette Rankin, Barbara Ward, Dorothy Day – who took it upon themselves to pump life into basic truths. Frances Moore Lappé is among them."

Lappé's son, Anthony, is a New York City-based producer and is the director of Invisible Hand Media.

Although ''Diet for a Small Planet'' has moved many readers to vegetarianism, Lappé herself is not a vegetarian.

Writings

Thin Democracy proposes that the government will govern themselves instead of the public good. Living Democracy proposes that the government governs for the public good

''Diet for a Small Planet'', Ballantine Books, 1971, 1975, 1982, 1991. ISBN 0345023781

''Food First: Beyond the Myth of Scarcity'' (with Joseph Collins), Houghton Mifflin, 1977, Ballantine Books, 1979.

''What To Do After You Turn Off the T.V.'', Ballantine Books, 1985.

''World Hunger: Twelve Myths'' (with Joseph Collins), Grove Press, 1986, 1998.

''Rediscovering America's Values'', Ballantine Books, 1989

''The Quickening of America: Rebuilding Our Nation, Remaking Our Lives'' (with Paul Martin Du Bois), Jossey-Bass, 1994.

''Hope’s Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet'' (with Anna Lappé), Tarcher/Penguin, 2002.

''You Have the Power: Choosing Courage in a Culture of Fear'' (with Jeffrey Perkins), Tarcher/Penguin, 2004.

''Democracy's Edge: Choosing to Save Our Country by Bringing Democracy to Life'', Jossey-Bass, 2005.

''Getting A Grip: Clarity, Creativity and Courage in a World Gone Mad'', Small Planet Media, 2007.

''Getting A Grip 2: Clarity, Creativity and Courage for the World We Really Want'', Small Planet Media, 2010.

References

External links

Small Planet Institute

Right Livelihood Award website

Interview on Humankind Public Radio

Recent Articles

Retire Ronald McDonald--Do it for our kids! Frances writes that Ronald McDonald should be retired and McDonald's should halt advertising to kids, March 2010

The Movement Mother An interview of Frances Moore Lappé with her son, Anthony Lappé, June 2009

The City that Ended Hunger Frances writes about the city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil in ''Yes Magazine''Feb,2009

Videos

Burger King's Flawed Strategy Frances on Fox News

James Beard Awards 2008 Frances Moore Lappé video

Big Picture TV Video clips of Frances Moore Lappé speaking about living democracy

Interview on ''Democracy Now!'', July 9, 2008

Liberation Ecology: Toward an Empowering Frame to Move from Crisis to Transformation, Frances Moore Lappé giving the keynote address at the annual Provender Alliance conference in Hood River, Oregon, October 2, 2008.

On KEXP 90.3 FM in Seattle, Washington An interview with Mike McCormick, producer of Mind Over Matters, July, 2008

Category:1944 births Category:Living people Category:American democracy activists Category:American motivational writers Category:American food writers Category:Cookbook authors Category:Earlham College alumni Category:People from Pendleton, Oregon

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